Chapter 1: The Vastan Fossil Treasure

For the past ten years, paleontologist Kenneth D. Rose has returned each winter to Vastan, one of the lignite mines located in western India. On a bright March morning, while miners in hard hats extract heavy chunks of coal with earthmovers, Rose and his team meticulously search through a thin layer of sediment using ice picks and brushes. Their mission: to uncover remnants of some of the earliest mammals that roamed the planet, revealing the story of modern mammalian evolution.

The fossils they seek date back to the early Eocene epoch, approximately 54.5 million years ago. During this period, the Earth was about 12 degrees Celsius warmer and experienced the most severe global warming event in its history. At that time, India was a tropical island that had recently detached from Madagascar and was on a collision course with the supercontinent Laurasia. This impending collision would compress the ancient Tethys Sea and elevate the Himalayan ranges. Vastan, a swamp adjacent to a lush rainforest, was home to various species, including ancient relatives of horses, tapirs, and a now-extinct order of mammals known as tillodonts, which bore a resemblance to saber-toothed bears.

Rose, a professor at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, has collected remnants of these ancient creatures, many of which are the oldest of their kind found in Asia. These fossils provide crucial insights into an ongoing evolutionary mystery: the origins, evolution, and dispersal of modern mammals. "We want to know how and when this fauna arrived in India, how they migrated, and how they evolved here," Rose explains.

The significance of the finds at Vastan lies in both their age and geographical context. Jessica Theodor, a vertebrate paleontologist from the University of Calgary, states, "The earliest Eocene marks the first appearance of many modern mammalian lineages." Previous paleontological efforts have sought the origins of modern mammals, such as cattle, camels, and horses. The findings at Vastan imply that these lineages may trace back to India, suggesting that mammals emigrated from there. "Vastan provides a unique glimpse into an early timeframe previously unexplored," Theodor notes.

However, the site faces challenges. Theodor was appalled to discover shark teeth protruding from fields of cotton. Globally, paleontologists recognize the importance and abundance of findings from the Vastan mines. "This is no coal mine; it’s a gold mine," remarks Ashok Sahni, a retired paleontologist who has spent a decade studying the site. The richness of Vastan is reminiscent of Germany’s Messel Fossil Pit, which is recognized as the premier repository of Eocene-era fossils. The key difference lies in the fate of these sites: Messel ceased commercial mining 40 years ago and was designated a UNESCO heritage site, thanks to local activism.

In contrast, India’s laws protecting fossil sites like Vastan are scarcely enforced and often inadequate. Three years ago, an extensive excavation at Vastan, measuring 5 kilometers wide and 100 meters deep, filled with fossils, was halted. Mining activities continuously destroy countless fossils. "The mining operators take our best finds and incinerate them in thermal plants," Sahni laments.

In a recent essay, Naman P. Ahuja, a professor at Jawaharlal Nehru University, criticizes India's neglect of its heritage. "South Asia is experiencing unprecedented development," he writes, "with rising populations transforming rural areas into urban landscapes, forever altering archaeological sites."

India has a rich history of scientific accomplishments. However, Sahni believes that short-term commercial interests overshadow the long-term benefits of preserving fossil heritage. "Ignorance and greed often prevail over scientific and geological considerations," he states.

Countries like the UK, US, and Australia have successfully safeguarded their geological sites, according to Murray Gray from Queen Mary University of London, who authored Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature. "Unfortunately, geological conservation struggles to gain traction globally, especially in developing nations where vital sites are lost almost daily," he warns.

To comprehend how one of the world's largest and most populous nations overlooks its invaluable fossil record, perspectives from scientists, archaeologists, and government officials are essential. Together, they explore whether there was ever a possibility to deter excavation efforts.

Chapter 2: The Dismal State of Fossil Preservation

The first video titled How 4 Million Fossils Are Extracted From Tar At La Brea Tar Pits delves into the intricate processes involved in fossil extraction and highlights the significance of preserving such sites in the face of industrial activity.

A decade ago, as an eager graduate student, Anjali Goswami set out on a journey to India's most notable fossil sites, accompanied by G.V.R. Prasad, a leading vertebrate paleontologist. Their journey included stops at locations where Prasad had made significant discoveries during the 1990s, including the first Cretaceous mammal unearthed in India. Their itinerary also featured fossil sites first explored in the early 19th century during a period marked by military officers and East India Company engineers uncovering fossilized remains.

Goswami’s first stop was Jabalpur, in central India, where British paleontologist W.H. Sleeman discovered Asia’s first dinosaur in 1844. "Moreover, it was conveniently located near my bua's house," she chuckles. Upon arrival, she was shocked to find the site completely covered in litter. "You could still navigate through it, but it was quite disgusting. Considering the wealth of dinosaur fossils from this location, one would hope for better protection."

Unfortunately, the rest of her trip yielded similar disheartening results. All five sites she visited in Karnataka, some previously excavated by Prasad, had been converted into farmland. She realized that the damage inflicted over the past century was dire. However, once she began fieldwork in 2007, she became acutely aware of how fast the destruction was occurring.

The second video titled What the Fossil Record Tells Us About Parasites, and What Parasites Can Tell Us About Fossil Animals discusses the insights gained from studying fossils and their implications for understanding ancient ecosystems and evolutionary biology.

Goswami initially worked in the Cauvery basin, surrounded by gentle hills. Over six years, while she and Prasad unearthed remains from turtles, dinosaurs, and an unusual snub-nosed crocodilian species, the surrounding hills were bulldozed into cotton fields. On a recent visit to her "best shark site," she was dismayed to see shark teeth emerging from rows of cotton. "This was incredibly frustrating! They had survived for 100 million years, and now they're gone—completely irreplaceable." Although they have since found new sites, development encroaches upon them swiftly.

The relentless pace of destruction forced Goswami to alter her plans, spending days washing sediments to extract fossils. "It’s sheer panic because I never know how much will remain when I return," she admits. "To paleontologists, all our data is unique. If we don’t retrieve it in time, we lose a branch of the tree of life forever."

Some of the earliest signs of life might be traced back to Vastan. In 2014, Rose and his colleagues identified a small-hoofed creature as a direct descendant of the original ancestor of modern horses and tapirs. This creature's anatomy combined features from two distinct groups. Its fused jaw resembled that of early horses and rhinos, but its teeth and limb structure pointed to a more ancient lineage, allowing researchers to fill critical gaps in the history of primitive hoofed animals.

"These fossils are more primitive than any others found from that order globally," asserts Rose. "We believe it's a great-grandchild of the common ancestor of horses and tapirs—an early remnant of that evolutionary lineage." He suspects that this creature's presence in Vastan, just before India connected with Eurasia, indicates that the ancestors of horses and rhinos likely originated in India.

Vastan has also revealed seven distinct bat species, each belonging to separate genera, which are closely related to European species found in France and Germany. Nancy Simmons, a curator at the American Museum of Natural History and a specialist in bat evolutionary biology, emphasizes the transformative nature of the Eocene for bats, as they evolved from small, clumsy creatures to capable fliers, enabling their rapid diversification. Simmons highlights the significance of the bats from Vastan: "Before these discoveries, I believed all significant Eocene bats were confined to South America, Europe, and North Africa. This unexpected fauna, which shares ties with North American and European species, raises questions about what else we may be overlooking."

Over the past 30 years, numerous fossils from the mountain ranges of India and Pakistan have helped scientists piece together the evolution of whales. Researchers can now visualize how whales transitioned from small, river-dwelling creatures to massive oceanic travelers over a span of just 10 million years. In the late 1990s, vertebrate paleontologist Sunil Bajpai discovered several remarkable evolutionary snapshots in the Babia Hills of Kutch, located in northwest India. "It felt like a whale graveyard!" Bajpai remembers. However, when he revisited the site years later, he was devastated to find that the horizon containing whale fossils was buried beneath coal mine debris. "After all those years of work, everything was destroyed. It was unimaginable!"

A multitude of factors has converged in India, making such devastation a grim reality. The government owns all mineral resources, specifically under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Mines, which prioritizes extractive industries. Occasionally, members of Parliament raise questions on behalf of their constituents regarding the protection of specific geological heritage sites, leading to bureaucratic responses from the Geological Survey of India (GSI).

Dhananjay Mohabey, a former Deputy Director General of GSI, acknowledges that while monuments can be "declared," they cannot be effectively maintained. "They are in very poor condition due to a lack of laws to prosecute offenders," he notes. "All we can do is place a signboard indicating the unique importance of the site."

Such bureaucratic formalities vanish in the face of any project deemed to be in the "national interest." For instance, the Varkala-Vizinjam cliffs in Kerala, declared a geo-heritage site in 2014, are now at risk due to a deep-sea port construction project that commenced last year. Activists opposing the project were told by the Supreme Court to step aside, as it was deemed a "project of national importance." When they highlighted the ecological sensitivity of the cliffs, Chief Justice T.S. Thakur retorted, "Is the state obligated to preserve all such places of beauty? Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder."

The government's indifference toward fossils is also evident in its ineffective measures against thieves and smugglers. Sahni recalls discovering that fossilized dinosaur eggs he had excavated were looted for trade and even religious purposes. Additionally, he has observed how paleontologists are hindered by the vague language of laws meant to protect antiquities and art treasures. "The law fails to clearly define what constitutes an antiquity or fossil," Sahni explains. "Yet, it's so restrictive that genuine researchers are turned away while smugglers operate without consequence."

Sahni expresses frustration over India's lack of a major natural history museum for its fossils. Aside from a repository maintained by the GSI in Kolkata, which primarily holds colonial finds, most fossil collections are managed by individual scientists and their research institutions. For instance, Sahni has maintained "a personal catalog" throughout his career for his own "sanity and science." The absence of a centralized repository creates additional challenges, as research often occurs in isolation.

Mohabey states, "When a fossil skeleton is found, one researcher removes the leg while another takes the arm. They end up scattered, making comprehensive study difficult." Compounding the issue is the fact that when professors retire, their extensive collections have nowhere to go. "These are large fossils; you can't simply transport them across the country," Sahni adds.

In recent years, Sahni has taken steps to address these challenges. In 2010, he collaborated with a forest officer, Pankaj Srivastava, to draft a fossil preservation act in Madhya Pradesh, a region rich in significant fossils, including dinosaur eggs that have been stolen. Frustrated by the rampant smuggling and destruction of fossils, Srivastava lamented, "There is no legal recourse for those who pilfer dinosaur eggs worth a fortune, selling them for merely 100 rupees." Unfortunately, despite their efforts, the bill never reached the assembly. "The fossil protection law," Srivastava notes, "is becoming fossilized."

Ahuja believes that scientists could garner public support through an awareness campaign in partnership with museums. "If paleontologists established a public interface through museums, more individuals would recognize the value of what’s at stake," he suggests. "However, advocating for the protection of fossil sites without disseminating information is futile. You’ll merely delay destruction until the next dam or road is constructed." He adds, "No one opposes progress, but it's alarming how indifferent the government is toward the nation's history."

Sahni concurs and regrets how far India lags behind other nations in the fields of paleontology and preservation. "China boasts around 40,000 active paleontologists, 17 natural history museums, and robust laws safeguarding fossils and fossil sites," he states. "If we had even half their support, we could rival their advancements in mammalian studies since 2007."

Earlier this year, in Vastan, tractors and excavators continued to ravage the landscape, uprooting earth and transporting lignite. Rose and his colleagues discovered an untouched area where they could search for fossils, diligently sifting through sediment one handful at a time. They were eager to publish a paper detailing a remarkably intact skull they had uncovered on a prior trip—its discovery is expected to create waves in the vertebrate paleontology community, unlike its counterparts, which vanished in a haze of brown dust.

Shruti Ravindran is a freelance journalist based in Mumbai, India. She covers topics related to science, health, the environment, and urbanism. This article was originally published by Nautilus on June 16, 2016.